A Brief History of Hci

A Brief account statement of humane figurer Interaction Technology Brad A. Myers Carnegie Mellon University School of calculating machine Science Technical treat CMU-CS-96-163 and Human electronic computer Interaction Institute Technical circulate CMU-HCII-96-103 December, 1996 Please cite this work as Brad A. Myers. A Brief recital of Human reckoner Interaction Technology. ACM interactions. Vol. 5, no. 2, March, 1998. pp. 44-54. Human Computer Interaction Institute School of Computer Science Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3891 emailprotected gp. s. cmu. edu Abstract This article summarizes the diachronic occupy of major advances in human- reckoner interaction technology, emphasizing the pivotal role of university look for in the advancement of the field. procure (c) 1996 Carnegie Mellon University A short excerpt from this article appe atomic add together 18d as part of Strategic Directions in Human Computer Interaction, gelded by Brad Myers, Jim H ollan, Isabel Cruz, ACM Computing Surveys, 28(4), December 1996 This interrogation was partially sponsored by NCCOSC under engender No.N66001-94-C-6037, Arpa Order No. B326 and partially by NSF under grant number IRI-9319969. The views and conclusions contained in this enter ar those of the authors and should non be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of NCCOSC or the U. S. Government. Keywords Human Computer Interaction, History, user Interfaces, Interaction Techniques. pic 1. Introduction interrogation in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) has been spectacularly uccessful, and has basically changed computing. Just genius example is the ubiquitous graphical user porthole used by Microsoft Windows 95, which is ground on the mac, which is based on work at make off PARC, which in turn is based on foremost look into at the Stanford explore research laboratory (now SRI) and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. An sep arate example is that almost all software written today employs drug user interface toolkits and interface builders, concepts which were unquestionable low at universities.Even the spectacular growth of the World-Wide Web is a direct result of HCI research applying hyper school text technology to browsers allows one to traverse a link across the world with a click of the mouse. Interface improvements more than anything else has triggered this explosive growth. Furthermore, the research that will lead to the user interfaces for the computers of tomorrow is happening at universities and a few in bodily research labs.This paper tries to briefly summarize many of the important research developments in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) technology. By research, I mean exploratory work at universities and government and corporate research labs (such as Xerox PARC) that is not directly cogitate to products. By HCI technology, I am referring to the computer side of HCI. A come with ar ticle on the history of the human side, discussing the contributions from psychology, design, human factors and ergonomics would also be allow for.A motive for this article is to overcome the mistaken impression that much of the important work in Human-Computer Interaction occurred in industry, and if university research in Human-Computer Interaction is not supported, then industry will just carry on anyway. This is simply not true. This paper tries to show that many of the most famous HCI successes developed by companies are deeply rooted in university research. In fact, virtually all of todays major interface styles and applications guide had world-shaking influence from research at universities and labs, often with government living.To illustrate this, this paper lists the funding sources of some of the major advances. Without this research, many of the advances in the field of HCI would probably not have taken place, and as a consequence, the user interfaces of commercial p roducts would be far more difficult to use and learn than they are today. As draw by Stu Card Government funding of advanced human-computer interaction technologies reinforced the intellectual capital and skil lead the research teams for pioneer organisations that, over a period of 25 years, revolutionized how people interact with computers.Industrial research laboratories at the corporate level in Xerox, IBM, AT&T, and others played a strong role in developing this technology and bringing it into a form suitable for the commercial arena. 6, p. 162). Figure 1 shows eon lines for some of the technologies discussed in this article. Of course, a deeper analysis would reveal much interaction between the university, corporate research and commercial activity streams. It is important to appreciate that years of research are involved in creating and making these technologies ready for widespread use.The analogous will be true for the HCI technologies that will provide the interfaces of tomorrow. It is cl earlier unimaginable to list every organization and source in a paper of this scope, but I have tried to represent the earliest and most influential systems. Although there are a number of other mints of HCI topics ( nail, for example 1 10 33 38), none cover as many aspects as this one, or try to be as comprehensive in finding the original influences. some other useful resource is the telecasting All The Widgets, which shows the historical progression of a number of user interface ideas 25.The technologies covered in this paper include unplumbed interaction styles like direct consumption, the mouse pointing turn, and windowpanes several important kinds of application areas, such as drawing, text edit and spreadsheets the technologies that will likely have the biggest impact on interfaces of the future, such as apparent motion actualization, multimedia, and 3D and the technologies used to create interfaces using the other technologies, such as user inte rface management systems, toolkits, and interface builders. pic picFigure 1 Approximate time lines showing where work was performed on some major technologies discussed in this article. pic 2. Basic Interactions Direct utilisation of graphical objects The now ubiquitous direct manipulation interface, where visible objects on the screen are directly manipulated with a pointing device, was first demo by Ivan Sutherland in Sketchpad 44, which was his 1963 MIT PhD thesis. SketchPad supported the manipulation of objects using a light-pen, including grabbing objects, moving them, changing size, and using constraints.It contained the seeds of myriad important interface ideas. The system was built at Lincoln Labs with support from the Air Force and NSF. leadiam parvenuemans Reaction Handler 30, created at Imperial College, capital of the United Kingdom (1966-67) provided direct manipulation of graphics, and introduced Light Handles, a form of graphical potentiometer, that was probably the first widget. Another first(a) system was AMBIT/G (implemented at MITs Lincoln Labs, 1968, ARPA funded).It employed, among other interface techniques, iconic representations, gesture recognition, high-voltage menus with items selected using a pointing device, selection of icons by pointing, and moded and mode-free styles of interaction. David Canfield Smith coined the limit icons in his 1975 Stanford PhD thesis on Pygmalion 41 (funded by ARPA and NIMH) and Smith later favoriteized icons as one of the chief designers of the Xerox Star 42. Many of the interaction techniques popular in direct manipulation interfaces, such as how objects and text are selected, opened, and manipulated, were researched at Xerox PARC in the 1970s.In particular, the idea of WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) originated there with systems such as the Bravo text editor in chief and the Draw drawing program 10 The concept of direct manipulation interfaces for everyone was envisioned by Alan Kay of Xerox PARC in a 1977 article around the Dynabook 16. The first commercial systems to make extensive use of Direct Manipulation were the Xerox Star (1981) 42, the Apple Lisa (1982) 51 and macintosh (1984) 52. Ben Shneiderman at the University of Maryland coined the term Direct Manipulation in 1982 and identified the components and gave psychological foundations 40. The Mouse The mouse was developed at Stanford Research Laboratory (now SRI) in 1965 as part of the NLS send (funding from ARPA, NASA, and Rome ADC) 9 to be a cheap replacement for light-pens, which had been used at least(prenominal) since 1954 10, p. 68. Many of the current uses of the mouse were demonstrated by Doug Engelbart as part of NLS in a ikon created in 1968 8. The mouse was then do famous as a practical input device by Xerox PARC in the 1970s. It first appeared commercially as part of the Xerox Star (1981), the terce Rivers Computer Companys PERQ (1981) 23, the Apple Lisa (1982), and Apple mackintosh (1 984). Windows Multiple tiled windows were demonstrated in Engelbarts NLS in 1968 8. early research at Stanford on systems like COPILOT (1974) 46 and at MIT with the EMACS text editor (1974) 43 also demonstrated tiled windows. Alan Kay proposed the idea of overlapping windows in his 1969 University of Utah PhD thesis 15 and they first appeared in 1974 in his Smalltalk system 11 at Xerox PARC, and soon after in the InterLisp system 47. Some of the first commercial uses of windows were on Lisp Machines Inc. (LMI) and Symbolics Lisp Machines (1979), which grew out of MIT AI Lab confinements.The Cedar Window Manager from Xerox PARC was the first major tiled window manager (1981) 45, followed soon by the Andrew window manager 32 by Carnegie Mellon Universitys culture Technology Center (1983, funded by IBM). The main commercial systems popularizing windows were the Xerox Star (1981), the Apple Lisa (1982), and most significantly the Apple Macintosh (1984). The early versions of the Star and Microsoft Windows were tiled, but eventually they supported overlapping windows like the Lisa and Macintosh. The X Window System, a current international standard, was developed at MIT in 1984 39.For a survey of window managers, see 24. 3. Application Types Drawing programs Much of the current technology was demonstrated in Sutherlands 1963 Sketchpad system. The use of a mouse for graphics was demonstrated in NLS (1965). In 1968 Ken Pulfer and Grant Bechthold at the matter Research Council of Canada built a mouse out of wood patterned after Engelbarts and used it with a key-frame sustenance system to draw all the frames of a movie. A subsequent movie, Hunger in 1971 won a number of awards, and was drawn using a tablet instead of the mouse (funding by the National image Board of Canada) 3.William Newmans Markup (1975) was the first drawing program for Xerox PARCs Alto, followed shortly by Patrick Baudelaires Draw which added handling of lines and curves 10, p. 326. The first computer painting program was probably barb Shoups Superpaint at PARC (1974-75). Text redaction In 1962 at the Stanford Research Lab, Engelbart proposed, and later implemented, a word processor with automatic word wrap, search and replace, user-definable macros, scrolling text, and commands to move, copy, and delete characters, words, or blocks of text.Stanfords TVEdit (1965) was one of the first CRT-based display editors that was widely used 48. The Hypertext Editing System 50, p. 108 from Brown University had screen editing and formatting of arbitrary-sized strings with a lightpen in 1967 (funding from IBM). NLS demonstrated mouse-based editing in 1968. TECO from MIT was an early screen-editor (1967) and EMACS 43 developed from it in 1974. Xerox PARCs Bravo 10, p. 284 was the first WYSIWYG editor-formatter (1974). It was designed by Butler Lampson and Charles Simonyi who had started working on these concepts close to 1970 while at Berkeley.The first commercial WYSIWYG editors were the Star, LisaWrite and then MacWrite. For a survey of text editors, see 22 50, p. 108. Spreadsheets The initial spreadsheet was VisiCalc which was developed by Frankston and Bricklin (1977-8) for the Apple II while they were students at MIT and the Harvard Business School. The solver was based on a dependency-directed backtracking algorithm by Sussman and Stallman at the MIT AI Lab. HyperText The idea for hypertext (where documents are linked to related documents) is credited to Vannevar Bushs famous MEMEX idea from 1945 4. Ted Nelson coined the term hypertext in 1965 29.Engelbarts NLS system 8 at the Stanford Research Laboratories in 1965 made extensive use of linking (funding from ARPA, NASA, and Rome ADC). The NLS Journal 10, p. 212 was one of the first on-line journals, and it included full linking of articles (1970). The Hypertext Editing System, jointly designed by Andy van Dam, Ted Nelson, and two students at Brown University (funding from IBM) was distributed extens ively 49. The University of Vermonts PROMIS (1976) was the first Hypertext system released to the user community. It was used to link patient and patient care information at the University of Vermonts medical center.The ZOG project (1977) from CMU was another early hypertext system, and was funded by ONR and DARPA 36. Ben Shneidermans Hyperties was the first system where highlighted items in the text could be clicked on to go to other pages (1983, Univ. of Maryland) 17. HyperCard from Apple (1988) significantly helped to bring the idea to a wide audience. There have been many other hypertext systems through the years. Tim Berners-Lee used the hypertext idea to create the World Wide Web in 1990 at the government-funded European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN). Mosaic, the irst popular hypertext browser for the World-Wide Web was developed at the Univ. of Illinois National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA). For a more thoroughgoing(a) history of HyperText, see 31. Comp uter Aided Design ( detent) The same 1963 IFIPS conference at which Sketchpad was presented also contained a number of domestic dog systems, including Doug Rosss Computer-Aided Design Project at MIT in the Electronic Systems Lab 37 and Coons work at MIT with SketchPad 7. Timothy Johnsons pioneering work on the interactive 3D CAD system Sketchpad 3 13 was his 1963 MIT MS thesis (funded by the Air Force).The first CAD/CAM system in industry was probably General Motors DAC-1 (about 1963). Video Games The first graphical video game was probably SpaceWar by Slug Russel of MIT in 1962 for the PDP-1 19, p. 49 including the first computer joysticks. The early computer Adventure game was created by Will Crowther at BBN, and fag Woods developed this into a more sophisticated Adventure game at Stanford in 1966 19, p. 132. Conways game of LIFE was implemented on computers at MIT and Stanford in 1970. The first popular commercial game was Pong (about 1976). 4. Up-and-Coming Areas Gesture Reco gnition The first pen-based input device, the RAND tablet, was funded by ARPA. Sketchpad used light-pen gestures (1963). Teitelman in 1964 developed the first trainable gesture recognizer. A very early demonstration of gesture recognition was tomcat Ellis GRAIL system on the RAND tablet (1964, ARPA funded). It was quite common in light-pen-based systems to include some gesture recognition, for example in the AMBIT/G system (1968 ARPA funded). A gesture-based text editor using proof-reading symbols was developed at CMU by Michael Coleman in 1969.Bill Buxton at the University of Toronto has been studying gesture-based interactions since 1980. Gesture recognition has been used in commercial CAD systems since the 1970s, and came to universal notice with the Apple Newton in 1992. Multi-Media The FRESS project at Brown used multiple windows and integrated text and graphics (1968, funding from industry). The synergistic Graphical Documents project at Brown was the first hypermedia (as opposed to hypertext) system, and used raster graphics and text, but not video (1979-1983, funded by ONR and NSF).The Diamond project at BBN (starting in 1982, DARPA funded) explored combining multimedia information (text, spreadsheets, graphics, speech). The Movie manual of arms at the Architecture Machine Group (MIT) was one of the first to demonstrate mixed video and computer graphics in 1983 (DARPA funded). 3-D The first 3-D system was probably Timothy Johnsons 3-D CAD system mentioned supra (1963, funded by the Air Force). The Lincoln Wand by Larry Roberts was an ultrasonic 3D emplacement sensing system, developed at Lincoln Labs (1966, ARPA funded). That system also had the first interactive 3-D mystic line elimination.An early use was for molecular modelling 18. The late 60s and early 70s saw the flowering of 3D raster graphics research at the University of Utah with Dave Evans, Ivan Sutherland, Romney, Gouraud, Phong, and Watkins, much of it government funded. Also, the m ilitary-industrial flight simulation work of the 60s 70s led the way to making 3-D real-time with commercial systems from GE, Evans, Singer/Link (funded by NASA, Navy, etc. ). Another important center of current research in 3-D is Fred Brooks lab at UNC (e. g. 2). Virtual human beings and Augmented Reality The original work on VR was performed by Ivan Sutherland when he was at Harvard (1965-1968, funding by Air Force, CIA, and Bell Labs). Very important early work was by Tom Furness when he was at Wright-Patterson AFB. Myron Kruegers early work at the University of Connecticut was influential. Fred Brooks and Henry Fuchs groups at UNC did a lot of early research, including the study of force feedback (1971, funding from US Atomic Energy Commission and NSF). Much of the early research on head-mounted displays and on the DataGlove was supported by NASA. Computer Supported Cooperative Work. Doug Engelbarts 1968 demonstration of NLS 8 included the remote involvement of multiple peopl e at various sites (funding from ARPA, NASA, and Rome ADC). Licklider and Taylor predicted on-line interactive communities in an 1968 article 20 and speculated about the problem of access being limited to the privileged. Electronic mail, still the most widespread multi-user software, was enabled by the ARPAnet, which became operating(a) in 1969, and by the Ethernet from Xerox PARC in 1973.An early computer conferencing system was Turoffs EIES system at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (1975). Natural language and speech The fundamental research for speech and inherent language understanding and generation has been performed at CMU, MIT, SRI, BBN, IBM, AT Bell Labs and BellCore, much of it government funded. See, for example, 34 for a survey of the early work. 5. Software Tools and Architectures The area of user interface software tools is quite active now, and many companies are selling tools. Most of todays applications are implemented using various forms of software tools. For a more complete survey and discussion of UI tools, see 26. UIMSs and Toolkits (There are software libraries and tools that support creating interfaces by writing code. ) The first exploiter Interface Management System (UIMS) was William Newmans Reaction Handler 30 created at Imperial College, London (1966-67 with SRC funding). Most of the early work was done at universities (Univ. of Toronto with Canadian government funding, George Washington Univ. with NASA, NSF, DOE, and NBS funding, Brigham Young University with industrial funding, etc. . The term UIMS was coined by David Kasik at Boeing (1982) 14. Early window managers such as Smalltalk (1974) and InterLisp, both from Xerox PARC, came with a few widgets, such as popup menus and scrollbars. The Xerox Star (1981) was the first commercial system to have a deep collection of widgets. The Apple Macintosh (1984) was the first to actively promote its toolkit for use by other developers to compel a consistent interface. An early C++ toolkit was Inter receives 21, developed at Stanford (1988, industrial funding).Much of the modern research is being performed at universities, for example the Garnet (1988) 28 and Amulet (1994) 27 projects at CMU (ARPA funded), and subArctic at Georgia Tech (1996, funding by Intel and NSF). Interface Builders (These are interactive tools that allow interfaces composed of widgets such as buttons, menus and scrollbars to be place using a mouse. ) The Steamer project at BBN (1979-85 ONR funding) demonstrated many of the ideas later incorporated into interface builders and was probably the first object-oriented graphics system. jack-in-the-pulpit 12 was developed at Xerox PARC in 1981.Another early interface builder was the MenuLay system 5 developed by Bill Buxton at the University of Toronto (1983, funded by the Canadian Government). The Macintosh (1984) included a Resource Editor which allowed widgets to be placed and edited. Jean-Marie Hullot created SOS Interface in Lisp f or the Macintosh while working at INRIA (1984, funded by the French government) which was the first modern interface builder. Hullot built this into a commercial product in 1986 and then went to work for NeXT and created the NeXT Interface Builder (1988), which popularized this geek of tool.Now there are literally hundreds of commercial interface builders. Component Architectures The idea of creating interfaces by connecting distributively written components was first demonstrated in the Andrew project 32 by Carnegie Mellon Universitys Information Technology Center (1983, funded by IBM). It is now being widely popularized by Microsofts OLE and Apples OpenDoc architectures. 6. Discussion It is clear that all of the most important innovations in Human-Computer Interaction have benefited from research at both corporate research labs and universities, much of it funded by the government.The customary style of graphical user interfaces that use windows, icons, menus and a mouse and are in a human body of standardization, where almost everyone is using the same, standard technology and just making minute, incremental changes. Therefore, it is important that university, corporate, and government-supported research continue, so that we can develop the science and technology needed for the user interfaces of the future. Another important argument in favor of HCI research in universities is that computer science students need to know about user interface issues. user interfaces are likely to be one of the main value-added competitive advantages of the future, as both computer hardware and basic software become commodities. If students do not know about user interfaces, they will not serve industry needs. It seems that only through computer science does HCI research disseminate out into products. Furthermore, without appropriate levels of funding of academic HCI research, there will be fewer PhD graduates in HCI to perform research in corporate labs, and fewer top- notch graduates in this area will be interested in being professors, so the needed user interface courses will not be offered.As computers get faster, more of the touch on power is being devoted to the user interface. The interfaces of the future will use gesture recognition, speech recognition and generation, intelligent agents, adaptive interfaces, video, and many other technologies now being investigated by research groups at universities and corporate labs 35. It is imperative that this research continue and be well-supported. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I must thank a large number of people who responded to posts of earlier versions of this article on the announcements. hi mailing list for their very generous help, and to Jim Hollan who helped edit the short excerpt of this article. Much of the information in this article was supplied by (in alphabetical order) Stacey Ashlund, Meera M. Blattner, Keith Butler, Stuart K. Card, Bill Curtis, David E. Damouth, Dan Diaper, Dick Duda, Tim T. K. Dudley, Steven Feiner, Harry Forsdick, Bjorn Freeman-Benson, John Gould, Wayne Gray, Mark Green, Fred Hansen, Bill Hefley, D. Austin Henderson, Jim Hollan, Jean-Marie Hullot, Rob Jacob, Bonnie John, Sandy Kobayashi, T. K.Landauer, John Leggett, Roger Lighty, Marilyn Mantei, Jim Miller, William Newman, Jakob Nielsen, Don Norman, Dan Olsen, Ramesh Patil, Gary Perlman, Dick Pew, Ken Pier, Jim Rhyne, Ben Shneiderman, John Sibert, David C. 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